381p. Buddhism in early 21st-century Southeast Asia is often described as Theravada Buddhism, in contrast to Mahayana Buddhism found farther to the north and east. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University, Dept. de Casparis. Hull, England: Centre for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1998. 2001, McHale, Shawn Frederick (2004), Print and power : Confucianism, communism, and Buddhism in the making of modern Vietnam /. 259-288 Hamilton Asia BQ843 .S23 1997, Schober, Juliane (1989) Sybille Paths to enlightenment [microform] : Theravada Buddhism in upper Burma / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Hamilton Asia-Library Use Only MICROFICHE S30956, Slater, Robert Henry Lawson (1951) Paradox and Nirvana; a study of religious ultimates with special reference to Burmese Buddhism Chicago, University of Chicago Press Hamilton BL1445.B95 S6, Smith, Donald Eugene (1965), Religion and politics in Burma Princeton, N.J., Princeton University Press, Hamilton DS485.B892 S5, Snodgrass, Judith (1996), Colonial constructs of Theravada Buddhism: current perspectives on Western writing on Asian tradition, In: Traditions in current perspective: proceedings of the Conference on Myanmar and Southeast Asian Studies, 15-17 November 1995, Yangon. Buddhist Monastic Life. 36 (Sep 7) 64-65, Condominas, Georges (1999) Folk Bouddhism [sic] in Lao rural environment South East Asian Review (Bihar, India) 24, nos.1-2 : 21-52, Ladwig, Patrice (2002), The mimetic representation of the dead and social space among the Buddhist Lao, Tai Culture: International Review on Tai Cultural Studies (Berlin) 7, no.2 (Dec) 120-134, Ladwig, Patrice (2000) Relics, 'representation' and power: some remarks on stupas containing relics of the Buddha in Laos, Tai Culture: International Review on Tai Cultural Studies (Berlin) 5, no.1 (Jun) 70-84, Penny, Benjamin (1996), Buddhism and Daoism in The 180 Precepts Spoken by Lord Lao, Taoist Resources (Bloomington, IN) 6, no.2 (Aug) 1-16, Sithiphorn Na Nakhorn Phanom (1998), Phajaa naak: the creator and the destroyer, Tai Culture: International Review on Tai Cultural Studies (Berlin) 3, no.2 (Dec) 119-136, Stuart-Fox, Martin (1983), Marxism and Theravada Buddhism: the legitimation of political authority in Laos, Pacific Affairs (Vancouver, B.C.) A dated but useful reference for the history of the Buddhist order. In modern Indonesia and Malaysia, Buddhism exists as a living religion primarily among the Chinese minority, who in the early 21st century constituted about one-quarter of the population and were recognized by the constitution as Buddhist. A contextual approach to the function and meaning of Borobudur, IIAS [International Institute for Asian Studies] Yearbook (Leiden): 191-219, Legendre, Francoise (1981), Some decorative motifs at Tjandi Sewu, Central Java, Arts of Asia (Hong Kong) 11, no.5 (Sep-Oct 1981) 103-109, Lopez y Royo-Iyer, Alessandra (1991), Dance images of ancient Indonesian temples (Hindu-Buddhist period): the dance reliefs of Borobudur, Indonesia Circle (London) no.56 (Nov) 3-23, Mulder, Niels (1974), Saminism and Buddhism: a note on a field visit to a Samin community, Asia Quarterly (Brussels) no.3 : 253-258, Nihom, Max (1998), The Mandala of Candi Gumpung (Sumatra) and the Indo-Tibetan Vajrasekharatantra [Maura Jambi], Indo-Iranian Journal (The Hague) 41, no.3 (Jul) 245-254, Nilaknata Sastri, A.K. However, the date of retrieval is often important. In mainland Southeast Asia, which entertained intense contact with Sri Lanka, Theravada Buddhism was predominant and survived even after the arrival of Islam and Christianity in the region led to the conversion of the biggest part of maritime Southeast Asia. It demonstrates the reasons and methods of the initial spread of the doctrine within South Asia and from South Asia to Han and post-Han China. Buddhist Forum 1 (1990): 4185. 1990 113-124; also in CONTRIB SE AS ETHNOL no.9 (Dec 1990) 113-124 Hamilton Asia GN635.A75 C66 no.9, de Casparis, J.G. The art and culture of South-East Asia. BUDDHISM Buddhists monks and nuns who take vows are, in canonical terms, "pleased" (prasdita ) by their vows. ; New York: Cambridge UP, 1988. 253p. Hamilton Asia BL2050 .R43 1998, Hayashi, Yukio (2000), Spells and boundaries in regional context: 'wisa' and 'thamma' among the Thai-Lao in Northeast Thailand, In: Hayashi, Yukio; Yang, Guangyuan, eds. In the other Theravada countries in Southeast Asia, Buddhism has had a much more difficult time. This accounts for the fact that the Udasi is now respected as equal to the most prestigious and ancient Hindu orders. Although some scholars locate the Suvarnabhumi (Land of Gold), to which Ashokan missionaries were supposedly sent, somewhere on the Malay Peninsula or in Indonesia, this is probably not accurate. 1.3 Political structures in Southern India *Sinhala Dynasties. Payutto) on his 60th birthday anniversary. These, however, did not impede the growth of Buddhism; they instead signal how Buddhism adapted to different conditions and ideologies and grew larger as a result. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. 380p. Southeast Asian archaeology 1966: proceedings of the 6th International Conference of the European Association of Southeast Asian Archaeologists, Leiden, 2-6 September 1996. 308p. Hinayana and Mahayana traditions spread into the two Indianized states, Funan (founded during the 1st century ce) and Champa (founded 192 ce). In Religion, Law, and Tradition: Comparative Studies in Religious Law, edited by Andrew Huxley, pp. Southeast Asia: women, changing social structure and cultural continuity. Phnom Penh: The Buddhist Institute, 1998. *Sinhala monarchies refers to the kings of Sri Lanka. 1v. (2001), Cosmopolitan Buddhism on the move: South India and Sri Lanka in the early expansion of Theravada in Southeast Asia, In: Klokke, Marijke J.; Kooij, Karel R. van, eds. New Delhi: S. Chand, 1983. Zysk, Kenneth. 44(2): 57-71, Quang Do (1974), A summary of the history of Vietnamese Buddhism, Van Hanh Bulletin (Saigon) 6, no.2 (Jun) 3-28, Soucy, Alexander (1996). The Buddhist order was founded and based on metaphysical principles, but its functions were based on the truth of conventional operations in the world. 343-358 Hamilton Asia BQ1012 .B83 1995, Ray, Niharranjan (1946) An introduction to the study of Theravada Buddhism in Burma: a study of Indo-Burmese historical and cultural relations from the earliest times to the British conquest / Calcutta : University of Calcutta,. Schopen, Gregory. 253p. Although varying in scope and intensity across the region's defective democracies and military or one-party dominated regimes, significant and worrying developments related to surveillance, data collection, censorship, misinformation, and harassment can be They usually lack a body of rules and conventions that would be recognized or accepted by a wider Hindu-Buddhist-Jain consensus. The married monks of pre-20th-century Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and those of some of the Japanese Buddhist orders are conspicuous examples. 165-180 Hamilton Asia NX577 .A78 1991, Lancaster, Lewis R. (1982), Literary sources for a study of Barabudur, In: Gomez, Luis; Woodward, Hiram W. Jr., eds. 566p. After the fall of the Mauryas, Buddhism continued to develop with government support from central Asian kingdoms. Buddhist spirituality: Indian, Southeast Asian, Tibetan, and early Chinese. Thus, whereas women's monasticism was not preserved in Tibet according to ancient Indian models, there were still vibrant women's communities throughout Tibetan history. Honolulu: Center for Southeast Asian Studies, University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2000. The Spread of Buddhism in South and Southeast Asia through the Trade Routes Stupas and Statue of Buddha at Borobudur Temple, Yogjakarta Indonesia Amnat Phutthamrong / Shutterstock.com Religious movements and religions have had an important role on the history of the Silk Roads. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1994. 1999 104-112 Hamilton Asia PL493 .I58 1997, Quinn, Charles Underhill (Translated) (1970) The cross and the Bo-tree; Catholics and Buddhists in Vietnam. It was also in the 7th century that the great scholar from Nalanda, Dharmapala, visited Indonesia. Furthermore, images of the Dpankara Buddha were found in diverse sites in eastern Java, some of these elements belong to the Indian Amaravati and Gupta Schools of Art. Building peace in the minds of men and women Expansion of Buddhism into Southeast Asia Since Buddhist monks used to travel with merchants, maritime trade relations between South and Southeast Asia played a major role for the expansion of Buddhism into the latter region. 253p. Still, Buddhist monks and nuns use the example of the Buddha's life story as a behavioral model. The Sikh monastic Nirmal-akhada and the quasi-monastic Nihang Sahibs came to terms with the overall Indian tendency to establish monastic traditions that express full-time involvement in redemptive practice. 1-22 Hamilton Asia DS528.5 .M93 1999, Pranke, Patrick (1995), On becoming a Buddhist wizard, In: Lopez, Donald S., ed. "Some Remarks for the Rise of the Bhikunsagha and on the Ordination Ceremony for Bhikuns according to the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya." ." Since the vows of the Buddhist monk in principle are not permanent, the theoretical emphasis on celibacy became academic in many parts of Asia. On the contrary, the cultures that arose in these three vast areas might better be thought of as alternative developments that occurred within a greater Austroasiatic civilization, sometimes called the Asia of the monsoons. (1995), A text book of the history of Theravada Buddhism / Delhi : Dept. After his conversion he was an avid supporter of religion, especially Buddhist monastic institutions. 347p. In Southeast Asia the impact of Buddhism was felt in very different ways in three separate regions. (1995), Borobudur: a Mandala? of plates Hamilton Asia DS338 .F78 2001, Tannenbaum, Nicola (1995), Who can compete against the world? Buddhism proposes a life of good thoughts, good intentions, and straight living, all with the ultimate aim of achieving nirvana, release from earthly existence. Buddhist monastic rituals, vernacular religious forms (Shugend mountain cults, Shinto lineages), rituals of bodily transformation involving sexual. 47(1): 51-71. 2550 McCarthy Mall Buddhist monks, however, were at least as important in this respect. Sexual relations, marriage, procreation, family life, career, and personal concerns are distractions from religious concerns and thus rejected as preconditions for admission to the Buddhist monastic communities. 135-155 Hamilton Asia DS338 .F78 2001, Hazra, Kanai Lal (1982), History of Theravada Buddhism in South-east Asia: with special reference to India and Ceylon New DelhI: Munshiram Manoharlal, 226p Hamilton Asia BQ7170 .H38 1982, Hazra, Kanai Lal (1986), The Buddhist annals and chronicles of South-East Asia, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 123p Hamilton Asia BQ280 .H39 1986, Holt, John Clifford, Jacob N. Kinnard, Jonathan S. Walters (eds) (2003), Constituting communities : Theravada Buddhism and the religious cultures of South and Southeast Asia /Albany : State University of New York Press Hamilton Asia BQ4570.S6 C66 2003, Kammerer, Cornelia Ann; Tannenbaum, Nicola, eds. 253p. With the help of the monk Gunavarman and other Indian missionaries, Buddhism gained a firm foothold on Java well before the 5th century ce. Of the slightly less than 100 monastic and quasi-monastic orders in South Asia, well over half developed locally or regionally. Buddhist monasteries maintained the fundamental teachings and moderate ascetic lifestyle, but Buddhists soon elaborated on the basic doctrines and accommodated new ritual practices current in its own and in new host cultures. Cao Dai survives at its monastery-fortress headquarters at Tay Ninh northwest of Ho Chi Minh City. Westport, Conn.; London: Greenwood, 1994. (Sata-pitaka series, 364.) Southeast Asia was in the Indian sphere of cultural influence from 290 BCE to the 15th century CE, when Hindu-Buddhist influences were incorporated into local political systems. In the monastic literary corpus there are many examples of the advantages of monastic life. (1990), Buddhist devotionalism in Burma, In: Kuppuram, G.; Kumudamani, K., eds. Sikhism, founded by the Punjabi reformer Nanak, was the least sympathetic of all indigenous Indian religions to monastic inspirations. The northern part of what is now Vietnam had been conquered by the Chinese empire in 111 bce and remained under Chinese rule until 939 ce. 322p. 2v. For the Sake of the World: The Spirit of Buddhist and Christian Monasticism. Takatani, M (1982). "Monasticism: Buddhist Monasticism Barabudur: history and significance of a Buddhist monument. 252p. 165-183 Hamilton Asia BL1950.A785 C445 1993, Mohamed Yusoff Ismail (1993) Buddhism and ethnicity : social organization of a Buddhist temple in Kelantan / Singapore : ISEAS, Hamilton Asia BQ549.K35 M69 1993, Nagata, Judith (1995), Limits to the indigenisation of Buddhism in Malaysia, with a focus on the religious community in Penang, In: Rokiah Talib; Tan, Chee-Beng, eds. Rather loosely joined together, Vietnamese Buddhists managed to preserve their traditions through the period of French colonial rule in the 19th and 20th centuries. *Sri Lanka was not ruled as a unified island. [CDATA[ 318p. The Buddhist monastic lifestyle grew out of the lifestyle of earlier sects . Pla era kings especially established and legitimized their imperial rule by resorting to Buddhist religious models and extensive support of Buddhist monasteries. John P. Ferguson (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1975); Emanuel Sarkisyanz, Buddhist Backgrounds of the . Contribution of Buddhism to world civilization and culture. Local laypeople offered food and materials appropriate to their means. The myth of the historical Buddha's life provides the basic model for Buddhist monasticism. Pick a style below, and copy the text for your bibliography. ; Nguyen Tai Thu, ed. Classical civilisations of South East Asia: an anthology of articles published in the Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies. 1989 119-141; also In (89-437) 107-129 Windward CC BL1032 .R47 1989, Swearer, Donald K. (1995), The Buddhist world of Southeast Asia / Albany : State University of New York Press, Hamilton Asia BQ410 .S93 1995, Wurlitzer, Rudolph (1994), Hard travel to sacred places, Boston : Shambhala, Hamilton Asia DS554.382 .W87 1994, Adolescence Hamilton, Hamilton Asia HQ35.A1 A3Akademika (Kuala Lumpur) Hamilton Asia AS486.U54 A13Aliran Monthly (Pulau Pinang) Hamilton Asia Folio DS591 .A45American Anthropologist (Arlington, VA) , Hamilton Main GN1 .A5American Ethnologist (Washington, DC) Hamilton Main GN1 .A53Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute (Pune, India) Hamilton Asia PK101 .B6Anthropological forum Hamilton Main- GN4 .A5Anthropos (Fribourg, Switzerland) Hamilton Main GN1 .A7Archaeology (New York) Hamilton Main GN700 .A725Archiv Orientalni (Prague) Hamilton Main DS1 .A47Archives de sciences sociales des religions. The chapter also explores that the pre-fifth century networks continued to have significant impact on the . It is certain, however, that Buddhism reached these areas by the early centuries of the 1st millennium ce. 60-63 Hamilton Asia DS501.5 .C84, Blackburn, Anne M. (2003), Localizing Linage: Importing Higher Ordination in the Theravadin South and Southeast Asia, in John Clifford Holt, Jacob N. Kinnard, Jonathan S. Walters (eds), Constituting communities : Theravada Buddhism and the religious cultures of South and Southeast Asia, Albany : State University of New York Press, Hamilton Asia BQ4570.S6 C66 2003, Blofeld, John E. (1971), Mahayana Buddhism in Southeast Asia, Singapore, D. Moore for Asia Pacific, 9, 51p Hamilton Asia BL1445.A8 B55, Bobilin, Robert (1999), Buddhism, nationalism and violence, In: Socially engaged Buddhism for the new millennium: essays in honor of the Ven. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) Mendelson, Sangha and State in Burma: A Study of Monastic Sectarianism and Leadership, ed. In mainland Southeast Asia, as in Sri Lanka, a Theravada reform movement emerged in the 11th century. Each country's circumstances are unique, but in Myanmar, a country with deep Buddhist roots, it is a legal offence for women to ordain as a bhikkhuni, and punishable by imprisonment. (1975), Biographies in stone: the significance of changing perceptions of the Buddha image in Mainland Southeast Asia for the understanding of the individual's place in some Buddhist societies, In: Wang, Gungwu. Women most often did not have access to monastic education. The long-term development of Buddhism in Vietnam, however, was most affected by Zen and Pure Land traditions, which were introduced from China into the northern and central sections of the country beginning in the 6th century ce. The Buddhist order had a fully developed internal legal system. Kuala Lumpur : Buddhists Missionary Society, Hamilton Asia DS595.2.C5 T36 1988, Nguyen The Anh (2002), From Indra to Maitreya: Buddhist influence in Vietnamese political thought, Journal of Southeast Asian Studies (Singapore) 33, no.2 (Jun) 225-241, Nhat Hanh, Thich (1976), The miracle of being awake, Visakha Puja (Bangkok) 2519 58-92, Pelzer, Kristin (1992), On defining 'Vietnamese religion': reflections on Bruce Matthews' article [Matthews' article The Place of Religion in Vietnam Today],Buddhist-Christian Studies (Honolulu) 12 (1992) 75-79, Pelzer, Kristin (1993), United States and Vietnam: on the need for spiritual reconciliation, Buddhist-Christian Studies (Honolulu) 13: 247-257, Phong T. Nguyen (2002). Direct involvement in lay legal matters on all social levels shows further that monasteries and lay political, social, economic, and legal institutions interacted closely in symbiotic relationships. Since Buddhist monks used to travel with merchants, maritime trade relations between South and Southeast Asia played a major role for the expansion of Buddhism into the latter region. 188p. Daoism, an ancient Chinese religion (with later Buddhist influences) that inspired some emulation in Japan and Korea, holds a middling position with respect to monastic ventures, lying somewhere between the powerfully antimonastic Confucian schools that always represented the official culture and mainstream of sophisticated Chinese opinion and the radically monastic Buddhists. Retrieved February 23, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/monasticism-buddhist-monasticism. There are indications that Vietnam was involved in the early sea trade between India, Southeast Asia, and China, and it is quite probable that Buddhism reached the country via this sea route near the beginning of the 1st millennium ce. Buddhist monasteries enjoyed the extensive support and protection of political authorities, and in turn monasteries offered religious services, education, and public legitimization. Hamilton Asia DU1 .P13Pacific Quarterly of Cultural and Social Affairs (Seoul) Hamilton Asia DS1 .A47345Prabuddha Bharata (Calcutta) Hamilton Asia BL1100 .P7Policy Sciences (Amsterdam) Hamilton Main H1 .P7Religion (Newcastle, England) , Hamilton Main BL1 .R37Visakha Puja Hamilton Asia BL1400 .V5Sarawak Museum Journal (Kuching) Hamilton Asia DS646.36 .A35Sawaddi. 363p. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica, no.140.) Buddhist Route Expedition. So far we have discussed the contiributino of Brahmin to the early transmission of Indian culture to southeast Asia. 169-188 Hamilton Asia DS523.3 .D953 2000, Huxley, Andrew, ed (1996) Thai law, Buddhist law: essays on the legal history of Thailand, Laos and Burma Bangkok: White Orchid, 1996, Lafont, Pierre-Bernard (1982) Buddhism in contemporary Laos, In: Stuart-Fox, Martin, ed. 1995 307-345 Hamilton Asia HN700.6 .A8 D55 1995, Nagata, Judith (2001), World religions as a source of power among Chinese women in Malaysia, In: Armstrong, M. Jocelyn; Armstrong, R. Warwick; Mulliner, Kent, eds. 566p. 1998 v.2, 113-127 Hamilton Asia DS523 .E89 1994, Lobo, Wibke (1997), The figure of Hevajra and Tantric Buddhism In: Jessup, Helen Ibbitson; Zephir, Thierry, eds. Sacred biography in the Buddhist traditions of South and Southeast Asia. 178-198 Hamilton Asia BQ352 .B83, Fontein, Jan (2001), The sarira of Borobudur, In: Klokke, Marijke J.; Kooij, Karel R. van, eds. Santi Asoke, a lay-oriented group that advocates stringent discipline, moral rectitude, and political reform, has been very much at odds with the established ecclesiastical hierarchy. While there were obviously developments of major significance resulting in schisms in the community and the development of historical sects, little of the data in the accounts of the early Buddhist conventions and institutions can be confirmed. House, 1992 427 p., 13 leaves of plates At head of title: National Centre for Social Sciences of Vietnam, Institute of Philosophy, Hamilton Asia BQ492 .L5313 1992, Minh, Chi; Ha, Van Tan; Nguyen, Tai Thu (1993), Buddhism in Vietnam: from its origins to the 19th century, Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers, 1993 Hamilton Asia BQ492 .M66 1993, Nguy~n Long Thnh Nam (2003), Hoa Hao Buddhism in the course of Vietnam's history; abridged translation by Sergei Blagov, New York : Nova Science Publishers Hamilton Asia BQ9800.P452 N49 2003, Nhat Hanh, Thich (1992), The diamond that cuts through illusion: commentaries on the Praj naparamita Diamond Sutra, Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 115 p. Hamilton Asia BQ1997 .N4413 1992, Nhat Hanh, Thich (1993), Love in action: writings on nonviolent social change, Berkeley, Calif.: Parallax Press, 1993 154 p., Hamilton Asia, BQ4570.S6 N47 1993, Phan Cu De (1999) Religion, philosophy and literature in Vietnam, In: Mallari-Hall, Luisa J.; Tope, Lily Rose R., eds. . Political turmoil and the revival of Buddhism in Cambodia [Japanese] Southeast Asian studies. Throughout much of the history of Angkor, the great imperial centre that ruled Cambodia and much of the surrounding areas for many centuries, Hinduism seems to have been the preferred tradition, at least among the elite. Buddhism Other pasts: women, gender and history in early modern Southeast Asia. de Casparis. (1960), Buddhism and socialism in Japan and Burma, The Hague : Mouton Hamilton HX395.B8 T58, Tun, K.T. 9-28 Hamilton HM136 .S58 1975, Sarao, K.T.S. Hamilton BL1445.B95 R3, Ray, Niharranjan, (1936), Sanskrit Buddhism in Burma Amsterdam, H.J. Rather, the ultimate aim of the Daoist practitioner is longevity or ultimate physical immortality. Religion, ethnicity and modernity in Southeast Asia / Seoul : Seoul National University Press Hamilton Asia BL2050 .R43 1998, Tsuchiya, Kenji (1989), Batavia in a time of transition / In Yoshihiro Tsubouchi (ed), The formation of urban civilization in Southeast Asia / Kyoto : Center for Southeast Asian Studies, Kyoto University, Hamilton Asia HT147.A785 F67 1989, Vijaya Samarawickrama. Nha Long (1990), The Khmer Buddhist calendar, Vietnamese Studies (Hanoi) no.27 79-80, Sahai, Sachchidanand (1997), The royal consecration (abhiseka) in ancient Cambodia, South East Asian Review (Bihar, India) 22, nos.1-2 (Jan-Dec) 1-10, Sarin, San (1998) Buddhism transformed: religious practices and institutional interplay in Cambodia, Indian Journal of Buddhist Studies (Varanasi) 10: 116-140, Thakur, Vijay Kumar (1983), From Mahayana to Hinayana: a study in Cambodian Buddhism, Journal of the Oriental Institute (Baroda) 33, nos.1-2 (Sep-Dec) 123-131. Self and biography: essays on the individual and society in Asia. That is, as long as monks obeyed the monastic laws and engaged in the ritual and meditative practices, Buddhism could and did appear in manifold forms through history. 2000 47-68 Hamilton Asia HQ1745.8 .O83 2000, Thompson, Ashley (1998), The ancestral cult in transition: reflections on spatial organization in Cambodia's early Theravada complex In: Klokke, Marijke J.; Bruijn, Thomas de, eds. In the monastic literature, whenever the Buddha prohibited an action and instituted a rule, he did so to please his disciples. In Laos it was recognized by the government as a part of the national heritage, and in Cambodia it was even given the status of a state religion. (Bibliotheca Indo-Buddhica Series no.207) 2001 120-126 Hamilton Asia BQ408 .B83. Encyclopedia.com. Berkeley, CA: Asian Humanities Press, 1981. According to the local Mon and Burman traditions, this is Suvarnabhumi, the area visited by missionaries from the Ashokan court. W67World of Music Hamilton Pacific ML1 .W596. 74-82 Hamilton Asia G156.5.H47 H475 1999, Mantra, Ida Bagoes (1991), The cult of Siva-Buddha, In: Lokesh Chandra, ed. The Daoist settlements of sages, in forests and mountain glades as well as in the cities, are, at best, analogous to the eremitic type of proto-monasticism. Starting shortly after the beginning of the Common Era, in the Later Han Dynasty, monasteries developed to become an essential part of Chinese society. (Berkeley Buddhist studies series, 2.) Buddhism in South-east Asia : mainly based on epigraphic sources / Calcutta : Atisha Memorial Pub. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1995. Yangon: Universities Historical Research Centre, 1996. Nonetheless, monasticism became the vehicle for the transmission of Buddhism to Tibet, China, and Japan, and to new monastic sites in Cambodia, Pagan, Burma, Java, and elsewhere. Hull, England: Centre for South-East Asian Studies, University of Hull, 1998. There appears to be a high degree of monastic involvement with lay society, and the provision of special amenities for monks who prefer a strictly contemplative life, as in Sri Lanka and Thailand, has been well defined in practice. Some of the most renowned Buddhist monasteries in history were built in the Gupta period. For example, Burmese monastic leaders produced, implemented, and preserved a fully developed lay legal system based on Buddhist law. Religion and politics became so closely related in this period that kings who sponsored building projects often took on nearly divine status. Statue of Buddha in Bodh Gaya, India Bodh Gaya is one of the most important historical sites in Buddhism. //